On Reflective Thinking
I studied theoretical perspectives on reflective thinking practices from several domains--psychology, education, philosophy, and the arts. From this literature review, I subscribed to a model of effective reflective thinking practices that is as much a dynamic process that occurs during the course of action as it is a keen awareness that occurs upon completion of a task.

Reflective Thinking Literature Review

The idea of thinking about one's own cognition can be traced back to the time of Plato and Aristotle. John Locke in 1690 used the term reflection to refer to the "'perception of the state of our own minds,'" or 'the notice which the mind takes of its own operations'" (Brown, 1987, p. 70). Theorists and researchers from different fields maintain different perspectives on the meaning of reflection; however, the notion usually refers to the foundation of higher-order thinking and learning. The broadest distinction of the various perspectives concerns what is considered to be the "operations" or "states" of mind that are the object of one's attention. For some the "operations" are task-specific cognitive strategies; for others the "states" are the foundational assumptions and knowledge that characterize all that one knows, believes, and does.

I will consider various perspectives on reflective thinking practices. I will examine theoretical perspectives of reflective thinking across domains-psychology, education, philosophy, and the arts-and I will consider the context of such practices-what are the fundamental goals, what is the specific process, what is the broader context in which reflective thinking is practiced. I will then synthesize the information in a description of what characterizes good reflective thinking . By good, I mean reflective thinking that may be considered the foundation of higher-order thinking. (model for reflective thinking) Finally, I will propose how a portfolio environment may support good reflective thinking practices. (design features for a portfolio) This reflection will ensure my own foundational knowledge of the issue and will allow me to deal effectively and comfortably with issues that arise as I design a portfolio environment that supports the reflective thinking process.

PERSPECTIVES ON REFLECTION

Metacognition. Questions surrounding an individual's ability to reflect is at the core of the historical roots of the concept of metacognition (Brown, 1987). Metacognition as an area of inquiry may be divided into three components-metacognitive knowledge (the awareness of one's knowledge and cognitive strategies), metacognitive judgements and monitoring, and control and self-regulation of cognition (Pintrich, 1996). All three components overlap, and a discussion of any one necessarily concerns the notion of reflection in some sense. Through reflection, one becomes aware of one's own knowledge or cognitive strategies; and one cannot monitor or regulate one's own cognitive strategies, if one is not aware of what those strategies are.

One may consider metacognitive knowledge as an awareness of one's own knowledge on many different levels; however, "[k]nowledge about the task and knowledge about the strategy variables that influence the cognition are the more traditional metacognitive knowledge constructs" (Pintrich, 1996, p. 5). Thus, researchers interested in the notion of metacognitive knowledge consider the object of reflection-the mind's "operations"-to be cognitive strategies for performing specific tasks. In such cases, the metacognitve individual must have clear, predetermined goals and standards in order to monitor and regulate her cognitive strategies effectively.

Among those researchers who consider the object of reflection to be task-based cognitive strategies, some hold these cognitive strategies to be specific to particular tasks in particular domains. Other researchers consider these cognitive strategies to have a broader range: they may have been learned with respect to a specific application; however, they may be transferred across tasks and disciplines, if a student practices the strategies across domains (Kennedy, 1991).

Solving Problems in Uncertainty. Other theorists-such as John Dewey and King and Kitchener-propose that individuals engage in reflection when they encounter problems with uncertain answers-when no authority figure has an answer, when they believe no one answer is correct, and when the solution cannot be derived by formal logic. The uncertainty or the belief in uncertainty is the essential requirement in this case for reflective thinking to occur. An individual must acknowledge that some problems may not be solved by one absolute truth. According to King and Kitchener, a reflective thinker in such problematic circumstances,

…must evaluate the potential solutions to the problem in light of existing information, information that may be incomplete and unverifiable…. Reflective thinking requires the continual evaluation of beliefs, assumptions, and hypotheses against existing data and against other plausible interpretations of the data. The resulting judgements are offered as reasonable integrations or syntheses of opposing points of view. Because they involve ongoing verification and evaluation, judgements based on reflective thinking are more likely to be valid and insightful than are beliefs derived from authority, emotional commitment, or narrow reasoning (Dewey, 1933, 1938). (King and Kitchener, 1994, p. 6-7)

King and Kitchener developed a Model of Reflective Judgement grounded in this theory of reflection. The Model of Reflective Judgement emphasizes the thinker's epistemic assumptions-what can be known and how a person can know. In this vision of the higher order cognitive ability, the reflective thinker examines and evaluates the available relevant information and opinions to construct a plausible solution to a problem at hand (King and Kitchener, 1994, p. 18). This plausible solution becomes the individual's belief that is subject to change as she gathers more information. The object of reflection in this situation-the "state of one's own mind"-is recognized as temporary. A reflective thinker draws on available information to construct her own belief system, one that is subject to change.

The Philosophical Mind. Similar to the perspective described above, the philosophical perspective of reflective thinking recalls Dewey's description: "Reflective thinking requires the continual evaluation of beliefs, assumptions, and hypotheses against existing data and against other plausible interpretations of the data" (King and Kitchener, 1994, p.7). An individual engages in reflective thinking to "perceive the state of her own mind." From the philosophical perspective, however, one may say either that reflective thinking is not limited to the context of problem solving or that problem solving is the natural state of the philosophical mind that always questions authority and the existence of one single correct answer. Richard Paul compares reflective thinking to the philosophical mind:

The philosophical mind…routinely probes the foundations of its own thought, realizes that its thinking is defined by basic concepts, aims, assumptions, and values. The philosophical mind gives serious consideration to alternative and competing concepts, aims, assumptions, and values, enters empathetically into thinking fundamentally different from its own, and does not confuse its thinking with reality. By habitually thinking in a global way, the philosophical mind gains foundational self-command, and is comfortable when problems cross disciplines, domains, and frameworks. A philosophical mind habitually probes the basic principles and concepts that lie behind standard methods, rules, and procedures. The philosophical mind recognizes the need to refine and improve the systems, concepts, and methods it uses and does not simply conform to them. The philosophical mind deeply values gaining command over its own fundamental modes of thinking. (Paul, 1990, p. 448)

Reflective thinking from the philosophical perspective is a thorough consideration of all of one's thoughts, the implications of one's frame of reference on those thoughts, and all alternatives to one's thoughts. Reflective thinking is what allows an individual to have some self-control and command over her own thinking and beliefs instead of their being entirely socially constructed. According to Paul, only an individual with a philosophical mind can fully and freely accept and act on her beliefs, as they are attained through self-reflection.

The Arts. Just as the philosophical mind and the mind of the problem solver engages in reflective thinking by considering alternative thoughts and perspectives and all available information, the mind of the perceiver of art engages in reflective thinking. David Perkins posits that learning to look at visual art may help one learn to think reflectively. When interpreting a work of art, one must ask many questions concerning various aspects of its creation and representation and consider all perspectives and alternative interpretations to appreciate fully the work. In The Intelligent Eye: Learning to Think by Looking at Art, Perkins writes, But looking at art in ways that make sense of it calls for much more than (the look and see mindset). Philip Yenawine, former director of education of New York's Museum of Modern Art, puts it this way: …art is not supposed to just be beautiful, appropriate for a setting, or easy. Its most satisfying function is that it allows us to exercise our minds. An artwork will establish certain boundaries by its subject matter, style, material, and techniques. It then lets us observe and analyze these givens by probing and musing. By finding its ambiguities, we can proceed in a game of speculation and interpretation. (Perkins, 1994, p. 5-6) The mind of the art interpreter considers the various perspectives of the physical nature and historical, social, and cultural context of a work of art, just as the philosophical mind considers the nature of the context and frame of reference of her own thoughts. Moreover, because interpreting art requires the observer to recall her own experiences and knowledge in order to come to some plausible conclusion, the process of interpreting a work art may be considered the reflective thinking process.